Paediatric ADHD and autism: diagnosis, treatment and AU pathways

ADHD and autism in Australian children

Two of the most common neurodevelopmental conditions presenting to Australian GPs are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Around 6–10% of school-age children meet criteria for ADHD, and approximately 1 in 70 Australian children are autistic — roughly 300,000 Australians overall, according to the National Autism Strategy 2025–2031. The conditions co-occur in up to 40–50% of children, and both are lifelong.

The AADPA 2022 NHMRC-approved guideline — subsequently endorsed by the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists in April 2024 — and the Autism CRC National Guideline 2nd edition (NHMRC-approved December 2023) provide the primary evidence base for Australian general practice. The GP role spans identification, preparation for specialist referral, shared care, monitoring, school liaison, NDIS navigation and management of comorbidities.

Both conditions are strongly heritable: ADHD heritability is approximately 74% and ASD heritability approximately 80%. Neither is caused by vaccines, parenting style, diet or screen exposure — though several of these factors can exacerbate symptoms in susceptible children.

A. Core clinical — the AU general practice framework

Definitions and diagnostic criteria

ADHD (DSM-5-TR) requires:

• Six or more inattention symptoms and/or six or more hyperactivity-impulsivity symptoms (five or more if aged 17 and older)
• Symptom onset before age 12
• Symptoms present in at least two settings (home, school, sport, community)
• Functional impairment in academic, social or family domains
• Symptoms not better explained by anxiety, mood disorder, trauma, ASD or a learning disability

Three presentations are recognised: predominantly inattentive (often missed in girls), predominantly hyperactive-impulsive, and combined. Girls and women disproportionately present with the inattentive subtype and are under-diagnosed across all age groups.

Autism spectrum disorder (DSM-5-TR) requires both:

• (A) Persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across contexts — reduced social-emotional reciprocity, impaired nonverbal communication, difficulty developing and maintaining relationships
• (B) Restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviour, interests or activities — stereotyped movements or speech, insistence on sameness, highly restricted interests, sensory hyper- or hyporeactivity

Symptoms must be present from early development (though they may be masked by learnt compensatory strategies, particularly in girls). Severity levels — Level 1 (requiring support), Level 2 (requiring substantial support), Level 3 (requiring very substantial support) — are based on support needs in social communication and restricted repetitive behaviours separately.

DSM-5 consolidated Asperger disorder, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) and autistic disorder into a single spectrum in 2013.

Red flags requiring urgent action

Several presentations require action before or alongside a standard neurodevelopmental workup:

• Loss of any previously acquired developmental skill at any age — loss of language, social engagement, motor skills or toileting warrants urgent paediatric referral to exclude neurodegenerative conditions, epileptic encephalopathy and metabolic disorders. RCH Melbourne Clinical Practice Guidelines address regression pathways.
• Cardiovascular contraindication to stimulants — family history of sudden cardiac death under 40 years, structural heart disease, severe hypertension or significant arrhythmia. Per AADPA 2022 Recommendation 7.6, routine pre-stimulant ECG is not required in the absence of cardiac risk, but an ECG (MBS item 11707) is indicated when risk factors are present.
• Acute suicidality or severe behavioural crisis — refer to a paediatric emergency department or child mental health emergency team. Atomoxetine carries an Australian black-box warning for suicidality in patients under 25.
• Suspected child abuse or neglect — GP-mandatory notification obligation applies in every Australian state and territory.
• Stimulant diversion risk — document history of substance misuse in the household before initiating Schedule 8 prescriptions.

History to take in general practice

A comprehensive neurodevelopmental history covers:

Symptom domains — onset, duration, settings affected; core ADHD inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity domains; ASD social communication, restricted or repetitive behaviours, sensory profile (hyper- and hyporeactivity), insistence on sameness.

Developmental history — language milestones (babbling, first words, first phrases, conversational language), motor milestones, social milestones (pointing, joint attention, social smile), regression history, feeding and toileting.

Pregnancy and perinatal history — alcohol, smoking, antiepileptics (especially valproate), SSRIs, prematurity, NICU admission, hypoxia.

Family history — ADHD, ASD, intellectual disability, learning disorder, mood disorder, anxiety disorder, tic disorder, suicide. Given the high heritability of both conditions, a positive family history substantially raises pre-test probability.

School — academic progress across years (look for trajectory, not just current level), behaviour reports, suspensions, peer relationships, bullying, sensory tolerance in the classroom.

Social and domestic — household composition, carer mental health and substance use, family violence exposure, housing and financial stress, child protection history. Adversity amplifies and mimics neurodevelopmental presentations.

Trauma screen — adverse childhood experiences substantially overlap with ADHD and ASD symptoms; history is pivotal for differential.

Sleep history — onset latency, awakenings, snoring or witnessed apnoeas, restless legs, parasomnias, total duration. Sleep disorders occur in 50–80% of autistic children and commonly worsen ADHD symptoms.

Adolescent screen (HEADSSS) — home, education, activities, drugs, sexuality, self-harm, suicide.

Examination

• Growth — plot height, weight and BMI on WHO 0–5 charts and CDC charts for children aged two and over; head circumference under two years
• Vitals — blood pressure and pulse rate sitting; essential baseline before stimulant medication
• Dysmorphic features — Fragile X (long face, prominent ears), Noonan syndrome, Williams syndrome; neurofibromatosis café-au-lait spots; tuberous sclerosis ash-leaf macules
• Cardiac — auscultation for murmur, especially if family history of sudden cardiac death
• Neurological — tone, reflexes, coordination, gait, soft neurological signs, involuntary movements (tics, stereotypies)
• Mental state — affect, attention and behaviour during consultation, social engagement, language quality (semantic and pragmatic), play
• ENT — hearing screen, tonsillar or adenoidal hypertrophy suggesting obstructive sleep apnoea
• Vision — formal acuity testing or referral for optometry

Investigations to arrange before referral

First-line for all children with suspected ADHD or ASD:

• Validated rating scales — for ADHD: Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scale (parent and teacher versions), or Conners-3; for ASD: Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers Revised with Follow-up (M-CHAT-R/F) at 16–30 months, or Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ) for children aged four and over
• Blood tests — full blood examination, ferritin and iron studies (iron deficiency causes inattention, restless legs and mood changes), thyroid function tests, vitamin D; consider B12 and lead level in selected cases per RCH CPGs
• Vision and audiology — exclude sensory causes of inattention and social withdrawal before a neurodevelopmental label is applied
• Sleep history — formal sleep study referral if snoring, witnessed apnoeas or daytime sleepiness are present

Specialist-tier investigations:

• ECG (MBS 11707) — only when cardiac risk factors are identified, not routinely
• EEG — if absence seizures are suspected (staring spells with automatisms, 3 Hz spike-wave morphology)
• MRI brain — if developmental regression, micro- or macrocephaly, focal neurology, or seizures
• Chromosomal microarray — first-tier genetic test for ASD with intellectual disability or dysmorphism (yield approximately 10%); Fragile X testing in boys with intellectual disability
• Psychometric assessment — IQ and adaptive behaviour (WPPSI-IV or WISC-V; Vineland-3) when intellectual disability is suspected or NDIS evidence is required

B. Differential diagnosis and common mimics

Misidentification in both directions — over-diagnosing ADHD/ASD and under-diagnosing it — causes harm. Common mimics and co-occurring conditions include:

Obstructive sleep apnoea — snoring, witnessed apnoeas, morning headache, daytime inattention and behavioural deterioration. Treat OSA first; ADHD symptoms often partially or fully resolve with effective OSA management.

Absence epilepsy — staring spells with automatisms (lip-smacking, eyelid flutter, brief confusion), each lasting 5–30 seconds; 3 Hz spike-wave on EEG. Responds to ethosuximide or valproate. Easily mistaken for inattentive ADHD.

Iron deficiency — a common, treatable cause of inattention, irritability, poor sleep and restless legs. Ferritin under 30 µg/L is common in selective-eater children and those on the autism spectrum. Check before attributing inattention to ADHD.

Developmental language disorder — academic underachievement, social difficulty and apparent inattention driven by language processing deficits; distinguished from ASD by intact social motivation and absent restricted or repetitive behaviours.

Trauma and PTSD — hypervigilance, dissociation, emotional dysregulation and impulsivity closely resemble ADHD. A trauma history is essential before prescribing stimulants.

Anxiety disorder — worry, rumination and avoidance produce difficulty concentrating, restlessness and social withdrawal. Anxiety has episode-onset and a pervasive worry theme; ADHD is trait-level from early childhood.

Specific learning disorder — domain-specific academic underperformance (reading, maths, writing) without pervasive attentional and behavioural difficulties across settings.

Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) — prenatal alcohol exposure with characteristic facial features, growth failure and/or microcephaly. Substantially overlaps with ADHD and ASD presentations.

Reactive attachment disorder / disinhibited social engagement disorder — requires history of severe deprivation or inadequate caregiving; different from ASD whose social communication differences arise from within-child differences in processing.

Hearing or vision impairment — straightforward but genuinely missed. Always check before applying a neurodevelopmental label.

C. Management — ADHD

Behavioural approaches (all ages, first-line)

AADPA 2022 recommends non-pharmacological approaches as first-line for all children and as the primary treatment for children under six:

Parent training in behaviour management — Triple P (Positive Parenting Program), Stepping Stones Triple P, Parent-Child Interaction Therapy, and Tuning In to Kids all have strong evidence for ADHD. Sessions can be delivered via a psychologist under a GP Mental Health Treatment Plan (MBS items 2715 or 2717) or through validated online programs.

CBT for ADHD (appropriate from age eight) — addresses executive function, organisation, emotion regulation and social skills. Psychology sessions under Better Access (10 individual sessions per calendar year under a MHCP).

School accommodations — seating at the front with reduced distraction, chunked work units, movement breaks, extended examination time, separate examination rooms, and a scribe or reader. A GP or specialist letter to the school is high-yield and often the most practical action available in a single consultation.

Sleep optimisation — fixed wake time, screen curfew 90 minutes before bed, predictable wind-down routine. Sleep deprivation amplifies ADHD symptoms across all domains.

Exercise — aerobic exercise has a small-to-moderate effect on attention and executive function across multiple RCTs. Australian guidelines recommend 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily for children; team sport and martial arts are particularly well-tolerated and valued by families of children with ADHD and ASD alike.

Stimulant pharmacotherapy

When indicated — moderate-to-severe ADHD (inattentive, hyperactive or combined presentation) in children aged six and over when impairment persists despite behavioural approaches.

Who initiates — specialist initiation (paediatrician or child psychiatrist) remains the standard in 2026 across most of Australia. From September 2025 in NSW, trained GPs may continue stimulant prescriptions after specialist initiation. Queensland from December 2025 permits selected GPs to initiate for adults only — children require specialist initiation. Schedule 8 authority from the relevant state Drugs and Poisons authority is required before prescribing.

First-line stimulant options per Australian Prescriber and AADPA 2022:

Drug	Formulation	Starting dose	Notes
Methylphenidate IR (Ritalin)	Tablet twice or three times daily	2.5–5 mg morning and lunch	Short-acting; useful for fine titration; multiple school-day doses can be a barrier
Methylphenidate MR (Concerta, Ritalin LA, Methylphenidate XR ARX)	Once daily morning	18–20 mg	Smoother afternoon coverage; once-daily supports adherence
Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse)	Once daily morning	20–30 mg, titrate to 70 mg	Pro-drug with lower diversion risk; 12+ hour duration; PBS listed for age 6 and over
Dexamfetamine	Tablet twice or three times daily	2.5 mg morning and lunch	Only TGA-approved stimulant under age 6; use under specialist supervision only in preschoolers

Second-line / specific indications:

• Atomoxetine (Strattera) — selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor; useful when tics, anxiety or stimulant intolerance; PBS Authority for age 6 and over; 4–8 weeks to full effect; check current supply (shortage confirmed August 2025 per AADPA statement); black-box warning for suicidality in patients under 25
• Guanfacine extended-release (Intuniv) — alpha-2 agonist; useful for tics, sleep difficulties, oppositional features; PBS Authority for age 6 and over; monitor for bradycardia and hypotension
• Clonidine — off-label for ADHD in Australia; used as an adjunct for sleep onset and tic management

Stimulant monitoring in GP shared care

Per Australian Prescriber, monitor at every GP visit:

• Weight — at least every six months; more frequently during titration. Alert if weight loss exceeds 5% of baseline
• Height — at least every six months; plot on percentile chart
• Blood pressure and pulse rate — sitting; compare to age and height normative values
• Appetite and sleep — both commonly affected; appetite suppression on stimulants is expected and usually manageable with later breakfast and appetite-stimulating evening snack
• Mood, affect, tics — new or worsening tics are not an absolute contraindication but warrant review
• School and family function — has the impairment the medication was prescribed for actually improved?

Refer back to the specialist if there is sustained weight faltering, persistent cardiovascular abnormality, new psychosis or mania, severe emotional lability, or if diagnosis appears incorrect in retrospect.

D. Management — autism spectrum disorder

Core principle

No medication modifies the core features of autism — the social communication differences and restricted or repetitive behaviours that define ASD. The Autism CRC National Guideline (2nd edition, NHMRC-approved 2023) situates early, intensive, developmental and family-centred intervention as the foundation of management.

Early intervention (best evidence, particularly before age five)

Speech pathology — pragmatic language (the social use of language), augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) for minimally verbal children, and narrative language development.

Occupational therapy — sensory processing assessment and support, self-care skills (dressing, feeding, hygiene), fine motor skills, school readiness.

Naturalistic developmental behavioural interventions (NDBIs) — these programs embed ABA-derived learning principles within child-led, play-based and relationship-based contexts. The Early Start Denver Model (ESDM), JASPER and Project ImPACT have the strongest current evidence base per Autism CRC. They are delivered by trained speech pathologists, psychologists and OTs, and parents are coached to embed strategies across the day.

Psychology — emotion regulation programs, anxiety treatment (autism-adapted CBT), school readiness, social skills support.

The ABA debate — Traditional applied behaviour analysis (intensive discrete trial training, Lovaas-based models emphasising compliance) is increasingly replaced by NDBIs in Australian best-practice guidelines. Autistic-led advocacy organisations including Reframing Autism describe historical intensive ABA as potentially harmful through masking promotion and compliance training. Clinicians reviewing any program should look for child-led, naturalistic, play-based and communication-focused delivery rather than repetitive compliance drills.

Pharmacotherapy for comorbidities

Because no medication treats autism itself, prescribing targets co-occurring conditions:

• Risperidone or aripiprazole — for severe irritability, aggression or self-injury in the context of ASD; under paediatric psychiatrist supervision; monitor weight, metabolic parameters and extrapyramidal side effects
• SSRIs (sertraline, fluoxetine) — for comorbid anxiety or depression; modest evidence in ASD-specific populations; start low, titrate slowly; monitor for behavioural activation
• Circadin (prolonged-release melatonin) — TGA-registered for insomnia in children aged 2–18 with ASD or Smith-Magenis syndrome where sleep hygiene alone is insufficient (TGA; Sleep Health Foundation); behavioural sleep intervention should be tried first; dosing under specialist guidance
• Stimulants — only if comorbid ADHD is present; response rates are lower and side-effect rates higher in autistic children than in ADHD-only populations

D. Australian operations — MBS, PBS and NDIS

MBS items for neurodevelopmental assessment and care

Standard GP consultations — MBS items 3, 23, 36 and 44.

GP Mental Health Treatment Plans — preparation items 2715 (20–39 minutes with mental health skills training, approximately $106) and 2717 (40 minutes or more, approximately $156). From 1 November 2025, the review item 2712 has been removed and preparation items are now confined to the patient’s MyMedicare-registered practice or usual practitioner, per RACGP MBS changes November 2025. Better Access provides up to 10 individual and 10 group psychology sessions per calendar year.

Healthy Kids Check — item 709 at age four: vision, hearing, BMI, behavioural and emotional wellbeing, toileting, immunisation.

Paediatrician consultations — initial 110, subsequent 116, complex treatment-and-management plan 132 (initial, 45 minutes or more) and 133 (review). Telehealth video equivalents are available.

Complex neurodevelopmental items — per Services Australia: specialist initial assessment 135; specialist treatment-and-management plan 137 (once per lifetime, age 25 and under); GP equivalent plan 139 (once per lifetime, age 25 and under). Eligible disabilities include ASD, intellectual disability, FASD, Lesch-Nyhan, and 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (1 March 2023 expansion). The Helping Children with Autism (HCWA) package has been fully wound into the NDIS and must not be billed in 2026.

GP Chronic Condition Management and Care Plan (GPCCMP) — preparation 965 and review 967 replaced the retired GPMP 721 and TCA 723 from 1 July 2025; relevant when ADHD or ASD co-occurs with a comorbid chronic condition such as asthma or epilepsy.

PBS — paediatric ADHD medicines

All stimulants are Schedule 8 and require state Drugs and Poisons authority in addition to PBS Authority. Key listings per PBS Schedule:

• Methylphenidate IR (Ritalin) — PBS Authority Required, age 6 and over
• Methylphenidate MR (Concerta, Ritalin LA, Methylphenidate XR ARX, Rubifen LA) — PBS Authority Required (streamlined for continuation), age 6 and over
• Lisdexamfetamine (Vyvanse) — PBS Authority Required (streamlined for continuation), age 6 and over
• Dexamfetamine — PBS Authority Required; TGA-approved from age 3 (only stimulant approved under 6 years)
• Atomoxetine (Strattera) — PBS Authority Required, age 6 and over; ongoing supply shortage in Australia as of August 2025
• Guanfacine ER (Intuniv) — PBS Authority Required, age 6 and over
• Clonidine — off-label for ADHD in Australia; no PBS listing for this indication

NDIS Early Childhood Approach and Thriving Kids

For children under nine — the NDIS Early Childhood Approach allows access to early childhood partner support without a formal diagnosis. Families are connected to allied-health teams who assess developmental needs and fund therapy directly. This is the primary entry point for children with developmental concerns regardless of whether a diagnostic label exists.

From 1 October 2026 — children under nine with low-to-moderate support needs will transition from the NDIS Early Childhood Approach to the Thriving Kids program. Children with high support needs remain in NDIS. GPs should document functional impact clearly in referral letters and NDIS evidence reports; reassessment for the 7–9 year age group has intensified in 2025–26 ahead of this transition.

For children aged nine and over — standard NDIS access requires formal evidence of functional impairment meeting eligibility criteria. ASD Level 2 or 3, severe ADHD with significant disability impact, and intellectual disability are typical pathways.

Centrelink — Carer Allowance and Carer Payment may be available where children meet eligibility; refer families to Services Australia.

School supports and medico-legal matters

Individual Education Plans (IEPs) — case-conferenced between teacher, special education coordinator, family and treating clinicians. A brief GP or specialist letter summarising diagnosis, functional impact and recommended accommodations is high-value and can meaningfully change a child’s school experience.

Nationally Consistent Collection of Data (NCCD) — schools record adjustments made to meet the Disability Standards for Education 2005; no NDIS plan is required for school to provide reasonable adjustments.

Exam adjustments — extra time, separate examination room, rest breaks, reader and scribe.

Mandatory reporting — all Australian medical practitioners are mandatory reporters for child abuse, neglect and exposure to family violence. Concern about a colleague’s conduct or impairment affecting a child’s safety triggers mandatory AHPRA notification.

Stimulant diversion — document clinical indication, observed functional benefit and prescribing cadence; communicate with the dispensing pharmacy when diversion risk is identified.

Consent and confidentiality — adolescents aged approximately 14 and over may be capable of independent consent to treatment (Gillick competence); document capacity assessment. Adolescents may consult independently in most Australian jurisdictions.

E. Special populations

Girls and women. Inattentive ADHD and autism in girls are substantially under-recognised. Girls with ADHD more commonly present with inattention rather than hyperactivity, and often show academic underperformance and anxiety rather than classroom disruption. Autistic girls frequently camouflage or mask — they learn to imitate social scripts at significant psychological cost, leading to late diagnosis and high rates of anxiety, depression and eating disorders. The Yellow Ladybugs organisation supports autistic girls and women in Australia.

First Nations children. Developmental screening at child health checks (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander child health checks, MBS item 715) should incorporate cultural and linguistic context. Refer to culturally appropriate services; NDIS Early Childhood approach is available; AADPA 2022 explicitly addresses cultural factors in ADHD assessment.

Children in out-of-home care. Developmental trauma and adverse childhood experiences substantially overlap with ADHD and ASD presentations. Trauma-informed assessment is essential; careful documentation of child protection concerns and court orders governing consent is required.

Children with intellectual disability. Approximately 30% of autistic children have co-occurring intellectual disability. IQ tests and adaptive behaviour assessments (Vineland-3) are required for NDIS eligibility evidence and for selecting appropriate interventions. Genetic testing (chromosomal microarray first, then Fragile X in boys, then gene panel or whole-exome in syndromic cases) has approximately 10% yield in this group.

Preschoolers (age 3–5) with suspected ADHD. Parent training is the mandatory first-line approach per AADPA 2022. Stimulants in preschoolers carry higher adverse-event rates and are appropriate only when impairment remains severe after adequate behavioural intervention, under specialist supervision only. Dexamfetamine is the only TGA-approved stimulant under age six.

Adolescent transition. Adult ADHD services are separate from paediatric services — a re-referral at age 17–18 is typically required for continued stimulant access in most states. Transition planning should include driving (ADHD increases motor vehicle accident risk; sedating non-stimulant medications are relevant here), substance use (ADHD confers elevated risk), sexual health, vocational planning and MyMedicare registration at an adult practice.

When to escalate

Urgency	Trigger	Destination
Immediate / Emergency	Acute suicidal ideation, severe behavioural crisis, suspected psychosis, developmental regression, new seizures, suspected child abuse	Paediatric ED and/or Child and Adolescent Mental Health (CAMHS) emergency team
Same-week	Severe school refusal or functional collapse, significant self-harm risk, intolerable medication side effects	Child psychiatrist or developmental paediatrician — via PHN access points, public hospital outpatient, or private
Routine (standard referral)	Suspected ADHD or ASD for diagnostic assessment, medication initiation, complex comorbidity management, transition to adult services	Developmental or general paediatrician for ADHD; multidisciplinary team (paediatrician, speech pathologist, psychologist, OT) for ASD
Allied health	Speech pathology, OT, psychology without requiring a medical specialist	NDIS Early Childhood (under 9 years), NDIS plan-managed (9 years and over with high support needs), Better Access psychology, private

What to include in the referral letter:

• Parent and teacher rating scales (Vanderbilt, SDQ or Conners-3)
• School reports from at least two consecutive years
• Growth chart, blood results, vision and hearing reports
• Mental health and trauma history
• Family history
• M-CHAT-R/F or SCQ (if ASD concern)
• Specific clinical question for the specialist

What this article is and is not

This article draws on the AADPA 2022 NHMRC-approved ADHD Guideline, the Autism CRC National Guideline 2nd edition (NHMRC-approved 2023), eTG Psychotropic, Australian Medicines Handbook, Australian Prescriber, RCH Clinical Practice Guidelines, and the National Autism Strategy 2025–2031. It is written for patients and families to understand the current Australian general practice framework for ADHD and autism. It is not personal medical advice and does not create a doctor–patient relationship. Assessment, diagnosis and treatment decisions are made with your child’s GP, paediatrician and allied-health team.

For families: HealthDirect — ADHD, HealthDirect — Autism, Raising Children Network — ADHD, Raising Children Network — Autism, NDIS Early Childhood Approach, Amaze, ADHD Australia, Reframing Autism.

If your child is in crisis: Kids Helpline 1800 55 1800, Lifeline 13 11 14, Beyond Blue 1300 22 4636, 13YARN 13 92 76 (First Nations).

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Sources cited

1. AADPA / NHMRC. Australian Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guideline for ADHD (Oct 2022, NHMRC-approved; RANZCP-endorsed April 2024)
2. Autism CRC. National Guideline for the Assessment and Diagnosis of Autism in Australia (2nd ed., NHMRC-approved 8 December 2023)
3. Therapeutic Guidelines. eTG complete — Psychotropic: Child and adolescent mental health
4. Australian Medicines Handbook — methylphenidate, lisdexamfetamine, dexamfetamine, atomoxetine, guanfacine, clonidine, risperidone, aripiprazole, melatonin monographs
5. Australian Prescriber. Pharmacological management of ADHD in children and adolescents
6. RACGP. Paediatric ADHD in general practice; Changes to MBS mental health items from 1 November 2025
7. Royal Children’s Hospital Melbourne. Clinical Practice Guidelines
8. Department of Health, Disability and Ageing. National Autism Strategy 2025–2031; Thriving Kids program; Physical Activity Guidelines
9. NDIS. Early Childhood Approach (under 9)
10. Services Australia. MBS billing for Complex Neurodevelopmental Conditions and eligible disabilities
11. AIHW. ADHD medications dispensed over time
12. AADPA. ADHD stimulant prescribing regulations in Australia and New Zealand; Atomoxetine shortage statement August 2025
13. NSW Health. Prescribe a psychostimulant medicine
14. QLD Health. Prescribing ADHD medicines
15. PBS Schedule — lisdexamfetamine, methylphenidate, dexamfetamine, atomoxetine, guanfacine
16. TGA. Vyvanse safety updates
17. Sleep Health Foundation. Melatonin and children
18. HealthDirect. ADHD; Autism
19. Raising Children Network. ADHD; Autism therapies guide
20. Beyond Blue; Kids Helpline; Lifeline; 13YARN